Chapter One<= /p>

Introduction

The U.S. Department of Housin= g and Urban Development (HUD) and the U. S. Geological Survey-National Mapping Discipline (USGS - NMD) have developed the Colonias Monitoring Program, a j= oint project to create internet-enabled geographic information systems (GIS) to = help communities along the U.S.-Mexico border address issues related to colonias (United States) and colonias marginales (Mexico) (see = Ward 1999 for distinctions between U.S. and Mexican colonias). In the United States, colonias are defined by HUD as rural communities and neighborho= ods located within 150 miles of the U.S.-Mexico border that lack adequate infrastructure or housing, and possible other basic services as well. In Mexico, communities or neighborhoods lacking adequate infrastructure or housing are referred to as colonias marginales or colonias precarias. The purpose of the Colonias Monitoring Program is to provide a GIS database that will enable civic lead= ers and citizens to inventory, analyze, and monitor growth, housing, and infrastructure in border communities. The latter tasks are to be achieved through the provision of “accessible and affordable technological too= ls to access public records with the objective of enhancing community-planning tools” (Lam, Norman, and Donelson 2004: 2).

Colonias Monitoring Program

The Col= onias Monitoring Program was established by HUD and the USGS in 2002 as part of t= he U.S. government’s response to the rapid expansion of colonias along the U.S.-Mexico border and in conjunction with a binational effort to improve housing conditions along the 2,000-mile border. Many communities in the United States, now designated as colonias, were established in the 1950s and 1960s by land developers and speculators who targeted farmworkers and low-income residents unable to gain access to conventional housing (Belden and Weiner 1998, cite= d in Lam, Norman, and Donelson 2004). This period marked the end of the U.S. Bracero program (1944-1964), which= was designed to secure a consistent, low wage, highly mobile, Mexican labor for= ce for growers throughout most of the southwestern U.S., and the beginnings of= the Mexican Programa Nacional Fronteriz= o (1961), which was designed to promote border tourism, and the joint Border Industrialization Program (1965), which was designed to absorb unemployed farmworkers and other border residents and to stimulate large-scale develop= ment on the Mexican side of the border. The Border Industrialization Program provided incentives to industries to establish twin-plant manufacturing ope= rations, known as maquiladoras. Under the program, maquiladora operators = set up assembly plants in Mexico, accompanied by small-scale operations on the U.S. side of the border. Boos= ted by the 1986 passage of the Immigration Reform and Control Act, which granted amnesty to undocumented residents as a means of encouraging migrant familie= s to settle in the United= States, and the North American Free Trade Agreement, which went into effect on Janu= ary 1, 1994, border industrial growth has resulted in massive population growth. The border region is home to more than 11.8 million people, with approximat= ely 6.3 million in the United States and 5.5 million in M= exico. Approximately 90 percent of the population resides in 14 paired sister citi= es, with the rest living in small towns or rural communities. Projected populat= ion growth rates in the border region exceed anticipated national average growth rates (in some cases by more than 40 percent) for each country (Peach and Williams 2000). Population projections for Arizona-Sonora are shown in Figu= re 1. Although the number of maquilado= ras operating on the border began to decline in 2000-2001 (see Table 1), the population of border communities remains high, and the problems associated = with a lack of infrastructure remain.

&n= bsp;

Figure 1. Projected Population Growth= along the Arizona-Sonora Border

Source: Peach and Williams 2003

Table 1. Number of Maquiladoras= in Nogales and Agua Prieta, Sonora<= o:p>

&nbs= p; &= nbsp; &nbs= p; 1999&= nbsp; 2000 2001 2002 2003 &nbs= p; 2004

Nogales &nb= sp; = 104 109 109 73 79 81

Agua Prieta &nb= sp; = 32 33 34 21 21 20

Source: Twin P= lant News, June issue of each year

Within the United States, border communi= ties lacking adequate infrastructure for water and sewage received attention from the Federal government in the 1980s when public outrage over poor living co= nditions, and especially the high rates of diseases such as cholera and hepatitis A, reached a peak. As a result of the 1983 Agreement on Cooperation for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment in the Border Area (the La Paz Agreement), the federal governments of both the United States and Mexico ha= ve defined colonias as substandard residential communities, incorporated and unincorporated, within 100 kilometers of the U.S.-Mexican border. In Mexico, communities with very inadequate infrastructure and services are commonly referred to as colonias marginales, or colonias precarias. The U.S. Congress, through several pieces of legislation enacted during the 199= 0s, required the states bordering Mexico to set aside a portion of their HUD-allocated Community Development Block G= rant (CDBG) funds to begin to lessen the poverty and distressed living conditions found in the colonias. Other federal agencies, such as the U.S. Department = of Agriculture (USDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency, also have colon= ias programs for the U.S.-Mexico = border states. HUD has defined colonias as “rural communities and neighborhoods located within 150 miles of the U.S.-Mexican border that lack adequate infrastructure and frequently also lack other bas= ic services. Many colonias have emerged in rural areas without formally sancti= oned local governance and the collective services that local government customar= ily provides. Some colonias may be entire border communities. Others are compri= sed of neighborhoods within incorporated communities” (www.hud.gov/groups/ frmwrkcoln/ whatcol.cfm). The USDA defines colonias as “subdivisions = that exist outside incorporated areas located along the United States-Mexico bor= der. Colonias are generally characterized as small communities with inadequate drinking water, poor sanitary waste disposal facilities, and substandard housing” (www.usda.gov/rus/water/ program_priorities.htm). On the U.S. side of the border, Texas has the largest number and concentration of colonias, with 1,400 communities estimated to house approximately 350,000 people, so it is not surprising that efforts to addre= ss infrastructure problems in impoverished border communities began there (see Ward 1999).

As a re= sult of the government’s decision to define and earmark funds for officially designated colonias, the number of communities so designated grew throughout the 1990s and into the 21^st century; HUD estimates that at least= 1.5 million people live in U.S. colonias. Though Texas continues to have= the largest number of identified communities, colonias have been designated in = all four U.S. states borde= ring Mexico: Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. By 2001, in addition to the colonias identified in T= exas, approximately 120 were identified in New Mexico and 80 in Arizona= (Donelson and Holguin 2001).

Since t= he early 1990s, Federal and quasi-Federal agencies have granted hundreds of millions= of dollars in Federal loans and grants for colonias projects. In addition to HUD’s Community Development Block Grant and Rural Housing and Economic Development Program and the USDA’s Rural Utilities Program and Rural Housing Service, programs such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Border XXI program (which operated from 1996-2001) and Border 2012 program (which is slated to operate from 2003-2012), as well as the No= rth American Development Bank (NADBank),[1] also provide funds to border communities. A goal of the Colonias Monitoring Program is to provide the framework for developing a comprehensive and sustainable approach to community development along the border and to provi= de demographic and planning information in relevant geospatial datasets that c= an be used by government entities and nongovernmental organizations in prepari= ng grant and loan applications for community-improvement projects (Lam, Norman, and Donelson 20= 04; Norman et al. 2004).

An Internet-Bas= ed System

The Colonias Monitoring Progr= am was initiated by HUD and the USGS in 2002 to provide the information needed to inventory, analyze, and monitor growth, housing, and infrastructure in bord= er communities. Additional objectives of the program include establishing partnerships with local government agencies and organizations involved in housing and infrastructure development, and promoting collaboration between= sister cities. A technical cooperation agreement was developed among HUD, t= he USGS, the U.S. Census, the Mexican Secretariat of Social Development (SEDES= OL), and the Mexican National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI) to facilitate the exchange of information to assist projects relati= ng to cross-border urban planning and colonias management (HUD Press Release N= o. 02-144, www.hud.gov/news/ release.cfm?content=3Dpr02-144.cfm). Through the agreement, the participating agencies were directed to work closely with st= ate and local communities in both countries to manage cross-border planning iss= ues and to improve housing and living conditions in the colonias.

One objective of t= he Colonias Monitoring Progra= m is to increase the capacity of local citizens and nongovernmental organization= s, as well as government planners, to participate in community development alo= ng the U.S.-Mexico border. The program is designed to enable more inclusive participation through the provision of affordable technology made accessible via an internet-based GIS service and database. The service and database are intended to facilitate access to information necessary for assessing problems, prioriti= zing needs, and planning to meet the housing and infrastructure needs of colonias and colonias marginales. New datasets that provide information about urban neighborhoods and the implications of urban growth = are being designed to help promote sustainable development along the United States–Mexico border by making knowledge of the local surroundings available to citizens. Many states designate all areas fitting the legal description of a colonia in order to take advantage of earmarked funding. In the development of the Colonias Monitoring Program project in Douglas-Agua Prieta, “the USGS identified smaller, colonia-like neighborhoods with= in incorporated communities of selected Arizona borderlands to be recognized as colonias in the future, thereby [allowing them the potential to compete] for some of those funds” (Norman et al. 2004:20). The Colonias Monitoring Program is intended to “exemplify a paradigm shift regarding the dissemination of public records at the international level. Partnerships wi= th other Federal, State, and local organizations, and with community members should improve both the quantity and accuracy of the acquired data” (Norman et al. 2004:46).

In 2002 the monitoring progra= m was begun in El Paso. In December 2002, the program was expanded to include the Arizona-Sonora si= ster cities of Douglas-Agua Prieta (see Norman et al. 2004 for a detailed description of the development of that project). At a November 2002 binatio= nal meeting aimed at improving coordination of housing opportunities, Mexican officials announced their desire to have Nogales, Sonora included in the Ariz= ona-Sonora border mapping efforts. As a result, HUD obtained the necessary approval and funding to develop a project in the sister cities of = Nogales, Arizona and Nogales, Sonora<= /st1:place>, known collectively as Ambos Nogales (“ambos” is the Spanish word for “both”).

The centerpiece of= the Colonias Monitoring Program is an Internet-accessible GIS database. This approach was selected to overcome the problems and expense associated with obtaining GIS software and developing GIS layers. The database can be acces= sed online using ESRI’s ArcIMS;[2] a user needs only= a computer, Internet access and a web browser to use it. At this time, the databases for Douglas-Agua Prieta and Ambos Nogales are managed at the Adva= nced Resource Technology laboratory in the School of Natural Resources at the University of Arizona. Table 2 shows the layers available in each of these databases. To respond to the initial goal of hel= ping border communities inventory, analyze, and monitor infrastructure, the USGS office created three layers, with information about roads, sewer lines, and water lines, for this program. Additional data layers are acquired by or submitted to the USGS offices in Tucson for review and inclusion in the database. Metadata are available for most layers of the Douglas-Agua Prieta and the Ambos Nogales databases.

Table 2. Data Layers Available with Arizona/Sonora Databases as of May 20, 2004

Data Layer	Douglas-Aqua Prieta	Ambos Nogales
Colonia Boundaries	X	X
International Boundaries	X	X
City Boundaries	X	X
City Features	X	X
Airports	X	X
Roads	X	X
Railroads	X
Flood Zone	X
Irrigation Canal		X
Streams		X
Water bodies		X
Watershed		X
Census Blocks	X
Population density		X
Sewer lines	X	X
Water lines	X	X
Aerial photographs	USGS 1996, INEGI 1994=	1994
Landsat Images	X	X
Urban Extent	1973, 1985, 1995, 2000	1975, 1983, 1995, 2002
Topography	Contour lines	Contour lines and hillshade<= /span>

<= /span>

Critical to program success in= both Douglas-Agua Prieta and Ambos Nogales has been active participation by local officials, civic leaders, educators, and other residents. First, local participants helped USGS personnel gather and verify data on roads, sewer a= nd water lines. Second, they attended presentations about the mapping program = and offered suggestions about how to improve it. Third, they provided additional data layers for the databases.

Recognizing that the ultimate value = of the Colonias Monitoring Program will be determined by its users and in order to enhance the involvement of local participants, officials from HUD initiated the user participation project on which this report is based. This project was designed to develop a methodology to assist H= UD and the USGS in obtaining and evaluating user participation in the developm= ent of the GIS database and to assess the potential use and future maintenance = of the database once it is completed. The methodology was applied in Ambos Nogales. Findings from Ambos Nogales were then cross-checked in the twin ci= ties of Douglas, Arizona= and Agua Prieta, Sonora.

This report is org= anized in five chapters. Chapter Two describes the methodology and its application= in this project. Chapter Three provides a general inventory of resources within Ambos Nogales, examining infrastructure, data, knowledge and attitudes in t= he areas of computer technology, Internet, and specifically GIS. Chapter Four describes potential uses of the HUD-USGS internet-based GIS service and database, as well as issues of concern for future projects. The report concludes with a summary and lessons learned during this pilot project.

Chap= ter Two

Meth= odology

This user participation project was des= igned to develop a methodology to identify potential users and uncover opportunit= ies and challenges for the application of the internet-based Geographic Informa= tion System (GIS) service and database being made available through the Colonias Monitoring Program. Use of the database requires access to and knowledge of computers and the Internet, as well as familiarity with mapping and GIS. To assess potential use of the program, researchers from the Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology (BARA) at the University of Arizo= na adopted an ethnographic approach. Ethnography is the use of qualitative research methods such as detailed observations and interviews to gain understanding of people in their natural settings.=

In this project, researchers gathered d= ata through interviews, focus group sessions, participant observation during presentations and training workshops, and two pilot projects. We selected t= hese methods (rather than a quantitative approach such as large-scale survey acr= oss the communities, for example) for three principal reasons: (1) our goal was to gather, use, and disseminate information throughout the research project to make the GIS dat= abase more accessible; (2) GIS is still largely unfamiliar to the general public = and we wanted to ensure that participants understood the subject of discussion;= and (3) when the project began the database and web site were presented in Engl= ish only and we needed to translate information before gathering data. <= o:p>

These methods made it possible for the researchers to be in regular communication with members of the participating communities. The activities were also coordinated with HUD and USGS personnel and targeted two phases in the creation of the border GIS databases: (1) design/definition of product, during which USGS personnel establish contacts with local representatives and interested parties to exchange information and collaborate on the desired end product; and (2) delivery of product / training on use, to include web-based GIS decision support systems, delivery of data via CD-ROM or the Internet, and the provi= sion of training to appropriate local personnel as needed. = Because the data collection phase was conducted while the GIS database was still under development in Ambos Nogal= es, and due to regular interaction between the researchers and USGS database developers, modifications and improvements to the database were made throug= hout the project in a process of ongoing feedback and adjustment. In many cases, changes were made almost as soon as they were suggested, increasing user confidence in the process as well as potential satisfaction with the end product. At the same time, because in many cases researchers were able to access the database directly from the workplaces and learning sites where interviews and focus groups were taking place, the research methodology incorporated training and enabled the researchers to assess potential train= ing and education needs of users.

Researcher participation in Ambos Nogal= es began with an initial meeting of about 20 participants at which HUD and USGS personnel introduced the Colonias Monitoring Program to interested parties. This presentation took place on September 15, 2003 at the offices of the Ci= ty of Nogales (Arizona). The meeting was conducted in English and attended by city and county officials, representatives of local non-governmental organizations, and university faculty and students; participation from Sonora was limited to four city officials who apologized that others were unable to attend because of a long weekend granted to employees due to the Mexican holiday (Independence Day), which occurs Septe= mber 16. HUD and USGS personnel introduced the Colonias Monitoring Program and t= he GIS database; additional participants shared experience with and interest in the use of GIS as a research and monitoring tool.<= /p>

Data collection on user participation b= egan in Ambos Nogales in January 2004 and continued for five months. Two dozen individual interviews, approximately half in Arizona and half in Sonora, we= re conducted with representatives from government, business and industry, education, and non-governmental sectors. Focus group sessions brought toget= her students, teachers, residents, and neighborhood leaders from both sides of = the border to view the database, use it to answer specific questions, and provi= de suggestions for improvement. Researchers also participated in meetings of c= ivic organizations and government bodies, classes and sessions where computers a= nd the Internet were in use, a pilot project where students mapped a neighborh= ood park and established monitoring sites within it, and a pilot project where students, teachers, and other residents used aerial photographs and maps to identify features on the ground, then used geographic positioning system (G= PS) units to trace their movements and link ground features to their geographic coordinates.

Ambos Nogales participants in this proj= ect included planning and zoning officials, computer and data management specialists, workforce and training program directors and instructors, busi= ness and industry leaders, public school teachers and students, NGO staff and directors, business and GIS consultants, and librarians. =

The interviews and focus groups provided researchers the opportunity to ask specific questions and observe individua= ls and small groups of people interacting with the Internet and the GIS databa= se. Of particular interest, in addition to specific GIS and Internet capabiliti= es, were knowledge and attitudes toward computers, computer databases, and mapp= ing technologies. The data gathered in these sessions were supplemented by dire= ct observation of computer users in classes, local libraries, offices, and out= side in community settings. These observations were critical to the assessment of computer and Internet availability, user confidence and competence, and receptivity to GIS. Utilizing these methods, researchers also received information about perceptions of others’ interest and capabilities; in almost all cases, individuals who speculated about others significantly underestimated their interest, knowledge, skills, and technical capabilitie= s.

Data from Ambos Nogales were supplement= ed by interviews, focus group sessions, and participant observation at one presentation in Douglas-Agua Prieta. The Douglas-Agua Prieta component of t= he project was limited in scope because of timing and resource constraints. Mo= st significantly, the Douglas-Agua Prieta GIS database was completed and had b= een presented to the Douglas community before this user participation project began. Thus, researchers had limited opportunities to coordinate their activities with program development, observe how participants responded to = the database, or take their recommendations to the database developer. Consequently, the Douglas-Agua Prieta component was used to cross-check information gained in Ambos Nogales to help researchers assess the relevanc= e of what was learned there for other border communities. Throughout this report, claims that are made are applicable to Arizona-Sonora border communities (a= nd most likely communities in other border states as well) unless it is specif= ied that they are unique to Ambos Nogales.

Chapter Three

Inventory of Resources

The Colonias Monitoring Pro= gram seeks to aid border communities by providing a Geographic Information System (GIS) platform to deliver information related to housing, infrastructure, demographics, and the natural environment. Only a web browser and Internet-connected workstation are necessary to view and manipulate the dat= a, which is displayed through ESRI’s ArcIMS application. By choosing this Internet-based application, the Colonias Monitoring Program avoids restrict= ing this information to people and organizations with the financial resources a= nd knowledge base necessary for utilizing expensive spatial analysis and displ= ay software.

Nevertheless, users of the Internet-based GIS must have access to computers and the Internet, and knowledge about how to use them. Because a goal of the Colonias Monitoring Program is to empower residents of poorer colonias by improving their acces= s to information, one objective of our study was to inventory available computin= g and GIS resources in Arizona/Sonora border communities. In this chapter we eval= uate the following types of resources available in the border region: (1) comput= ing infrastructure (the physical availability and functionality of computers and Internet connections) and Internet use; (2) preexisting data (such as exist= ing GIS databases and initiatives); and (3) knowledge and attitudes about GIS.<= /p>

&nbs= p; We used various methods to inventory these resources. Our goal in this assessm= ent was to evaluate the existing and potential resources of as many types of us= ers as possible. We questioned civic leaders, such as municipal officials, educators, and representatives of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), ab= out access to computing resources and Internet and GIS use in their communities= . We also documented the presence and functionality of computing resources in the sites where we conducted research. Combined with information from the interviews, this documentation enables us to begin to characterize varying levels of access to digital technology and knowledge. Finally, we organized= and conducted pilot projects and focus groups with students and educators from Ambos Nogales. These interactions served not only to introduce GIS technolo= gy (the Colonias Monitoring Program database in particular) to community membe= rs, but also to assist the BARA research team in assessing knowledge and attitu= des about GIS. As an additional benefit, participants in these activities provi= ded useful feedback about the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS, which database managers were able to incorporate as part of an iterative, interactive proc= ess of improving the database.

Computing Infrastructure and Internet Use in Border Cities

Our inventory of computing infrastructure focused on Ambos Nogales, and included various types of sites such as homes, schools, libraries, Internet cafés, NGO offices, and government buildings. Though we found considerable computer and Internet ac= cess and use among some sectors of the population, such as high school students,= not all community members use computing technology. Here we divide this invento= ry by city and also include information about general Internet usage. In the n= ext chapter of the report we provide more detail on how specific people and institutions in border cities might use the GIS database developed by the Colonias Monitoring Program.

Nogales, Arizona

&nbs= p; Internet availability and use in Nogales, Arizona and the surrounding rural communit= ies have increased dramatically in the past few years. Several companies provide access through regular phone lines and special services. Homes that have computers generally also have Internet access. Homes in the poorest neighborhoods generally have neither one.

All schools in Nogales, Ari= zona have computers. At Nogales High School, for example, each teacher has a computer with Internet access in his or her classroom, and in some cases students are allowed to use these computers. In addition, the high school h= as four computer labs to which students have access throughout the day. BARA researchers observed high school students during a week-long Summer Research Camp in Nogales, Arizona and found that the students had the basic skills necessary for using the Internet; most had current email addresses and regularly used the Internet for communication. Under a new program being developed in the summer of 2004, access to the school’s labs is being extended to community members after school hours. Middle and elementary sch= ools also have computer labs and computers are available within classrooms. In addition, the Santa Cruz County School District has two new projects underw= ay to provide public-access computer labs within Nogales, Arizona; one of the = labs will be established in the gymnasium at a HUD housing complex in order to p= rovide convenient access to low income residents who are less likely than others to have computers in their homes.

&nbs= p; Residents also have access to computers at the city library. The library has 19 compu= ters with Internet connections that are significantly faster than those of a dia= l-up service. The library additionally offers regular bilingual courses in compu= ter use for beginners as well as some advanced courses. Library staff estimate = from a computer usage log that 1,700 people per month (or 100 per day – th= e seemingly low monthly estimate may account for repeat users) take advantage of the library’s computers. Although she could not provide exact figures, a library employee also indicated that many of these users come from across t= he border in Mexico. Crossing the border, which for some residents of border cities is a daily or near-daily activity, may provide some people with acce= ss to the computing technology necessary to benefit from Internet-based information sources.

All municipal government of= fices in Nogales, Arizona have a fast Internet connection (via T-1 lines). Accessibi= lity to the technology necessary to view and manipulate the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS is not a problem for city planning and development employees, although many city employees lack familiarity with GIS. County government offices also have reasonably fast access to the Internet and are able to vi= ew and use the database. Both the City of Nogales and Santa Cruz County mainta= in websites (see following section).

&nbs= p; Computer and Internet use within the business and NGO communities in Nogales, Arizon= a is highly variable. A number of Nogales businesses maintain websites (see the Nogales Chamber of Commerce master list at www.nogaleschamber.com/master_list.asp). Most NGOs have at least a single computer with access to the Internet, and staff regularly use email and the Internet for finding information and communication. Nevertheless, due to restricted budgets and overworked personnel, especially since the economic downturn that began in 2000 and has continued to affect border communities,= few NGOs have much time or resources to devote to training and staff developmen= t.

&nbs= p; In general, BARA researchers found that access to computers and the Internet h= as grown significantly in recent years and that Nogales, Arizona residents and community leaders can and do access these resources. It is interesting to n= ote that, in contrast to the situation in Nogales, Sonora (see below), there ar= e no Internet cafés in Nogales, Arizona.

Nogales, Sonora

Many residents of Nogales, = Sonora also have access to computers and the Internet and use them on a regular ba= sis, although community residents we spoke with in lower-income neighborhoods had little, if any, experience using the Internet. Nevertheless, Internet access and use are expanding, in part because many students from various socioecon= omic backgrounds are gaining access to and knowledge about computers through the= ir schools.

&nbs= p; Many residents, though generally not the recent migrants to the city who live in= colonias marginales, have Internet connections in their homes. Most of the secondary- and college-level educat= ors with whom we spoke, as well as most of the municipal officials, can access = the Internet from their houses. One such official did not yet have access to the Internet in his office at work, but regularly sent email and browsed the Internet from his home in the evenings.

Residents of the colonias marginales are far less likely to have access to the Internet. While working at a construction site, one member of the BARA team found that none= of the approximately 60 homes in a rapidly-growing colonia section on the east= ern edge of the city had access to the Internet, and none of the 12 local resid= ents present at the site had ever used the Internet. Though the vast majority of houses in even the colonias marginales have access to electricity (electricity in this neighborhood is commonly accessed by splicing the line from a neighboring house), and municipal water lines are currently being extended into the area, few residents have either the computers or phone li= nes that would enable Internet access. Consistent with the pattern observed by researchers in the late 1990s (see Sadalla, Swanson, and Velasco 1998, 1999= ), all of the residents in this colonia with whom the researcher spoke had arr= ived in the city within the past five years.

&nbs= p; Schools provide an opportunity for many young people in Nogales, Sonora to learn ab= out computers and the Internet. The city’s large technical institute (whi= ch offers the equivalent of post-secondary and graduate education) features a computer lab with 50-60 Internet connections that operate at 56k modem spee= d, and other smaller computing facilities are scattered throughout the campus = in various offices and departments. Almost all student homework at this instit= ute is assigned and submitted via email. Preparatory and secondary schools (equivalent to high schools and junior high schools in the United States) visited by BARA researchers also have computer labs for student use. The li= brary of one had ten computers, six of which had dial-up Internet connections. Another had a computer lab with Internet access, although a teacher noted t= hat electrical power tended to be sporadic. Few elementary schools have computer labs or computers in classrooms, although some administrators have them in their offices. In general, computing facilities are more common in schools = at the secondary level and higher, although a current Sonoran state government initiative aims to provide computers to all schools, including those at the primary level.

Students and e= ducators with whom we spoke consistently indicated that most students who reach the secondary level of education in Nogales, Sonora are very comfortable with computer and Internet use. BARA researchers observed Sonoran secondary stud= ents during the week-long Summer Research Camp and found a wide range of skills = and experiences among students completing Grade 2 (equivalent to eighth grade in Arizona). A few students were highly experienced, some were at least famili= ar with the Internet and using browsers, and a few were introduced to the Inte= rnet for the first time. At their secondary school, students had limited access = to the Internet because the school’s electrical wiring would not support= computers. Thus, even though computers had been obtained for the school, they could no= t be connected until the school was rewired. That project was slated to begin in= the summer of 2004. At the preparatory school level, reorganization of the fede= ral school system will begin in the fall of 2004. Under the new program, all students will be required to take at least one course in information techno= logy and communication (Tamez Guerra et al. 2004). While some students in this border city are fluent in English, the majority of students use Spanish-language web resources.

&nbs= p;

Schools and home connection= s are not the only options for Internet use by city residents. As mentioned previously, some residents use the Internet in the public library of Nogale= s, Arizona, but the public library of Nogales, Sonora also has computers with Internet connections. Because of budget constraints, however, the Internet connection at only one workstation was functioning during the visit when a = BARA researcher familiarized the staff there with the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS database.

&nbs= p; Another very popular option is the use of Internet cafés, of which there are many scattered throughout the city. A member of the BARA team accessed the = GIS site from one of these cafés next to a school. Detailed results of t= hat experience are provided in the next chapter on individual cost for use of t= he GIS database. It is worth noting that one hour of Internet use is one-half = the price of the cheapest meal at an inexpensive downtown cafeteria frequented = by students, and that the times required to download pages of the ArcIMS viewer are only slightly longer than those needed if using the high-speed connection BARA office computers on the University of Arizona campus.

&nbs= p; Many, although not all, municipal government offices in Nogales, Sonora have an Internet connection. An Internet connection is being installed for the computers in the main planning and zoning offices of the city, and a police station and buildings of La Comisión de Agua Potable y Alcantarillad= o del Estado de Sonora (COAPAES; the water utility, formerly state-run but shifting over to municipal contro= l) had functioning Internet connections in various offices. As discussed in the next section of this chapter, the municipal government also maintains a very sophisticated website. During a visit to the municipality of Agua Prieta, t= he BARA team documented that the computers in the Agua Prieta city government offices also have Internet access, with a reasonably fast dial-up speed. A community member who has worked extensively with both municipalities descri= bed the municipal buildings of Agua Prieta as “better equipped” with computing and Internet technology than those of Nogales, Sonora.

&nbs= p; Most maquiladora managers also have Internet connections in their offices and use the web regularly to track shipments and communicate with other managers. As discussed in the next chapter of the report, maquila managers and other investors are potential users for the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS datab= ase. Other businesses also use the Internet for communication and advertising.

Non-profit organizations and charities in Nogales, Sonora could potentially benefit from detailed information on housing conditions, infrastructure, and social indicators, b= ut their access to Internet resources varies. The Habitat for Humanity offices= in Nogales, Sonora, for example, have a computer but no Internet connection, w= hile the Casa de la Misericordia, a community center of the Borderlinks program operated by Catholic sisters and women from the surrounding neighborhood, h= as computers and its staff regularly communicates via email.

Overall, the BARA team foun= d that access to the Internet is reasonably widespread and rapidly improving in Nogales, Sonora, although the most economically-marginalized residents of t= he city do not have access to Internet-based sources of information. Neverthel= ess, many government officials and community leaders from various institutions a= re able to use these technologies, as are students and educators. Cross checki= ng in Agua Prieta indicated that in Arizona-Sonora border cities, lack of acce= ss to Internet technology is not a major barrier to the potential usefulness of the Colonias Monitoring Program database.

Other Potential Users of the GIS database.

Beyond the border communities, there are many potential users of the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS. These include feder= al and state government officials, university researchers, and non-local NGOs,= all of which generally have ready access to computers and Internet connections.= For example, University of Arizona faculty and student participants in a March = 2004 Geography Colloquium expressed considerable potential interest in the Colon= ias Monitoring Program GIS database. These individuals have easy access to the = rapid Internet connections of university facilities. Similarly, the Sonoran Insti= tute is an environmental NGO with offices in Tucson that works that with communi= ties on both sides of the international border, particularly on issues regarding= the Santa Cruz River. The Institute’s offices have rapid access to the Internet, and several staff members work extensively with GIS applications.=

Preexisting Data and Initiatives

Santa Cruz County

<= o:p>

&nbs= p; Several employees of the county government have been working to develop and maintai= n a county GIS database, including information collected specifically for their database using GPS units. As of February 2004, the county database included information about roads, topography, districting, location of road signs, a= nd census data that has already been used to redraw districts based on registe= red voters, among other layers. It did not include sewer or water line data, wh= ich is under the jurisdiction of the city of Nogales, Arizona. County officials informed BARA researchers that the database and server will be made operable when it is completed; at the time of the interviews the last remaining data layers to be acquired were aerial photography of the county, estimated to c= ost approximately $110,000 and likely to extend one mile across the internation= al border into Mexico if permission from the necessary government authorities = was granted. The county database has been funded mostly through the county̵= 7;s general fund, but has also been supported by assessor and recording fees and Homeland Security funds (for the aerial photos). Through funding from the county’s Workforce Development Program, a private company provided software and a 12-week training course for Santa Cruz County employees on technical aspects of GIS.

City of Nogales, Arizona

As of spring 2004, no city employees were ass= igned to work on GIS or develop a database. One official explained that this was = due to budget constraints rather than to a lack of need for such information, a= nd this official also noted that the city government lacked even basic map information and therefore would find the Colonias Monitoring Program databa= se to be very useful. Most of the city’s maps are at least 15 years old = and recent updates to them reflected zoning changes rather than base information such as street layouts that need to be brought up to date. The city of Noga= les, Arizona does have a web site (www.cityofnogales.net) that is focused on municipal governance and services and business development. It lacks maps of the city, which could be provided via a link to the Colonias Monitoring Pro= gram GIS database.

United States Border Patrol

&nbs= p; Two interviewees in the city of Nogales, Arizona mentioned that the federal Bor= der Patrol maintains very detailed GIS databases of the international border, w= ith high resolution that allows for live tracking. However, access to these databases is restricted for security reasons. Participants in this project = were very interested in learning whether any of the data layers in the Border Patrol’s GIS database could be made available to the public through t= he Colonias Monitoring Program or another venue.

City of Nogales, Sonora

&= nbsp; The municipal government of Nogales, Sonora has not undertaken extensive GIS development projects. The city government’s official website (municipiodenogales.org) provides a wealth of extremely detailed and in some cases up-to-the-hour information about climate, the city economy, hydrology, vegetation, history, and many other aspects of the city. When first launche= d in 2002 it was rarely visited, but by February 2004 it was receiving over 4,000 hits per day from outside investors and tourists as well as Nogales residen= ts. Many community members interviewed by the BARA team expressed interest in t= he Colonias Monitoring Program GIS database as a source of much-needed spatial information about their communities; the spatial data provided by the datab= ase complement the information in the city website, which contains very few map= s. The developer of the Colonias Monitoring Program database has worked closely with the Nogales, Sonora municipal official who created and maintains the c= ity website, and a logical next step would be for the two websites to be linked= to each other.

Knowledge and Attitudes about GIS

&nbs= p; There are several individuals in Ambos Nogales, on each side of the border, with extensive spatial analysis experience. It is likely that a similar situation exists in other communities along the U.S.-Mexico border. The participation= and local knowledge of such individuals would be a major asset in the ongoing development of the Colonias Monitoring Program.

&nbs= p; At the same time, our research indicates that, other than the individuals with extensive experience, few community members on either side of the border ha= ve more than rudimentary knowledge of GIS, if any at all. Within the local governments, for example, officials in the planning divisions of both Nogal= es municipalities were aware of GIS but had not used it extensively. Outside of the government and NGO communities, we encountered very few people who were familiar with GIS. None of the students with whom we interacted had been formally exposed to GIS at school. During focus group sessions in Nogales, Sonora at a secondary school and the public library, where we introduced and demonstrated the Colonias Monitoring Program database, participants were confused at first about what to do with the database or how to use it. Even those participants who spoke and read English (at that time, the web viewer= had not been translated into Spanish) struggled to navigate and manipulate the ArcIMS viewer without guidance, and several participants became frustrated = and lost interest.

&nbs= p;

This initial confusion and difficulty implies neither that GIS databases are too complex for the avera= ge person to use, nor that the specific interface used for the Ambos Nogales viewer is not user-friendly. Rather, it suggests the need to provide potent= ial users with at least introductory hands-on training in the use and manipulat= ion of the GIS platform. Once participants in our demonstration activities rece= ived guidance (interactive, and in Spanish where appropriate), almost everyone c= ould quickly grasp the basics of zooming to appropriate scales, turning layers on and off, and combining sets of data to investigate potentially interesting relationships. Study participants who reviewed all three sites so far creat= ed for the Colonias Monitoring Program noted that the Ambos Nogales web pages = were more intuitive to use than the Texas border city web viewers. The Ambos Nog= ales database also includes a help section, and participants’ feedback on improving the interface has been incorporated into the site.

These findings indicate t= hat providing at least a minimal amount of training in GIS is essential if the Colonias Monitoring Program’s border databases are to be widely and successfully used by community members. One of the simplest and most effect= ive forms of such training is introduction to the databases themselves. This ty= pe of training involves interactive, hands-on sessions during which community members learn how to use the ESRI ArcIMS viewers to seek and overlay information. Whenever it was possible to access the Internet, BARA research= ers successfully delivered this type of training during focus group activities = and interviews. A second type of training seeks to increase knowledge about gen= eral principles of spatial data analysis. The pilot project conducted by the BARA team at an Arizona park is an example of this second type of training. In t= his activity, Nogales, Sonora secondary school students learned general princip= les of GPS and GIS during a short lecture session and then put this knowledge to work in practical, fun exercises using GPS hardware and GIS software on handheld computers.

Hands-on training is very= useful for raising awareness of and enthusiasm for spatial analysis technologies a= nd projects. Resolving logistical problems of transporting equipment and people across the border can be challenging.[3] During the introductory sessions, adult educators were generally satisfied = once they reached a moderate level of use and understanding, but some high school students, having received the minimal practical introduction, quickly began experimenting and exploring the possibilities of the technology, unsupervis= ed by an instructor. There is much potential in this generation of technology-savvy youth, but Internet-based data sharing technologies will n= ot reach this population unless they are more actively publicized, and unless = some training in their use is provided. Local training in Nogales, Arizona will begin in the summer of 2004 with a program to introduce high school student= s to GPS and GIS.

Summary<= /o:p>

&nbs= p; Lessons can be drawn from this experience and applied to future GIS work in the bor= der region. In both Nogales cities, BARA researchers spoke to community members experienced with GIS and already working to disseminate spatial information= or other types of useful information to the public. These people are excellent collaborators in database development and public promotion.

&nbs= p; Concerns about potential use of the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS mirror those expressed within the communities about other GIS databases being developed – a GIS database is only as accurate as the underlying data upon whic= h it has been developed. In general, database developers are acquiring data from several sources, and a lack of standardization of digitizing and data collection protocols could reduce confidence in the databases and in GIS as= a whole. Lack of coordination of efforts by different levels of government has impeded progress as well.

Most people interviewed by = BARA researchers in Ambos Nogales had not previously been aware of the existence= of an Internet-published database about their communities, and several urged u= s to promote it more actively, publicize it through the press, and in the case of Nogales, Sonora, to officially present it to the municipal government. This observation also held true for the Douglas-Agua Prieta database. At a meeti= ng with municipal officials representing many departments in the municipality = of Agua Prieta,, including housing, public safety, and city planning, the BARA team found that only one participant had heard of the GIS database that had been developed for his community.

Training of community mem= bers in the use of GIS databases is necessary as an integrated component of Colonias Monitoring Program efforts. Not only does such training make the web-based information more useful to people in border cities, but it also raises awareness of the existence and availability of these databases. Many respondents expressed pleasant surprise that the information was available = free of charge and thanked BARA researchers for bringing it to their attention. Municipal government officials and NGO employees are obvious candidates for such promotion and training efforts, as are educators and library staffs. <= /p>

In sum, BARA researchers fo= und a moderate level of familiarity with and access to computers and the Internet= , as well as interest in GIS databases about the border communities. They also identified the need to actively publicize these databases, while respecting official channels of communication such as municipal governments, and the n= eed to provide widespread introductory- level training in their use.

Chapter Four

Using the GIS Database

&nbs= p; The Colonias Monitoring Program has created GIS databases with the explicit pur= pose of making demographic and planning information accessible to local governme= nts, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and colonia leaders of the border reg= ion, in the hope that these institutions and individuals can use this informatio= n to apply for grants from HUD and other organizations in order to fund community development projects (Lam, Norman, Donelson 2004:3; Norman et al. 2004:13).=

Applying for grants from HUD and other U.S. fe= deral agencies is only an option for U.S. communities. Nevertheless, interview participants and others on both sides of the border who contributed to this user participation project revealed a variety of additional uses and users = for the Colonias Monitoring Program website and the data shared through the GIS application. This chapter does not attempt to cover all possible uses and u= sers of the GIS database, but it is organized to give some detail on the applications envisioned by community members interviewed by the BARA team. = From the enthusiastic response elicited by initial sessions with the GIS site, it seems likely that more uses will emerge as the database develops and users = become more familiar with the possibilities. Still, as noted in the final section = of this chapter, it is important to recognize that the enthusiasm of some interviewees was based on expectations of data quality and maintenance that= may not be attainable.

Users and Uses

Many users on both sides of the border recogni= ze the database as a potentially useful source of general information that could h= elp them do their jobs and generate basic city maps. In addition to this general practical assistance, many users described specific applications of the database.

Municipal Offi= cials and City Planners

Municipal officials on bo= th sides of the border recognized the Colonias Monitoring Program’s potential value in zoning and planning. They mentioned that the website could be used= to track the growth rates for different areas of the cities and therefore sign= al infrastructure needs. For example, in Nogales, Sonora, colonias on t= he western side of town and in some areas close to the international border are growing rapidly. Further, interviewees in both Sonora and Arizona mentioned that the database could help provide for continuity of planning among diffe= rent administrations or better integration of goals among different municipal departments. One user suggested that the database could help provide a more rational appraisal of resources and needs and reduce clientalism or patrona= ge that may influence city resource allocation.

Another issue that appear= ed particularly salient to Mexican users was the potential for the GIS databas= e to help efforts to control flooding. Participants reported that the database c= ould be effective in identifying areas at risk for flooding during heavy storms, could help with erosion control, and could help guide revegetation projects= .

Interviewees also frequen= tly mentioned transportation applications. City officials in both Arizona and Sonora expect that the database could be helpful in planning routes for pub= lic transportation by relating population densities and existing transportation routes. Traffic patterns could be a useful addition for future planning as well, as vehicular congestion was cited as a major problem in these cities, particularly in Nogales, Sonora.

Other Governme= nt Entities

In addition to uses envis= ioned by municipal leaders, there are several other areas of city services in which interviewees felt the database would be useful. First, the police department could use the database to get street maps, organize patrol areas and potentially analyze traffic patterns. Similarly, fire departments could also get maps, and would utilize layers displaying water mains with their diamet= ers and fire hydrant locations, if such layers were available. The post office = and the Red Cross would access the database for street maps, and school officia= ls could use the database to plan the growth of the school system. Finally, several people envisio= ned using the database for emergency planning, to plot evacuation routes, or predict and track the movement of pollution plumes.

Officials from Santa Cruz County are developi= ng their own database with a focus on parcel data from the assessor’s of= fice for potential investors. They do not at this time have layers of water and sewer lines, and would be interested in obtaining that information from the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS database. Their goal would be to add the Colonias Monitoring Program layers to those they already have.

In Nogales, Sonora several interviewees expre= ssed cautious optimism that the provision of reliable socioeconomic and infrastructure information could rationalize the process by which areas of = the city receive municipal funding. This focus on the municipality as the arbit= er of funding was a common theme in the BARA team’s interviews in Nogale= s, Sonora, and several interviewees explicitly noted that funding from outside sources is generally funneled through channels of municipal administration.= At this time individual colonias in Nogales, Sonora do not generally apply for funding for infrastructure projects from sources external to the municipali= ty, although the Sonoran governor’s new Pasos program is intended to incr= ease the autonomy and ability of colonias leaders to acquire resources directly = from the state government. One official also noted that even if the GIS database could aid government officials in allocating funds to the neediest neighborhoods, colonia residents would still require effective organization= in order to receive funds from the municipality or state.

Private Invest= ors

Several interviewees note= d the potential uses of the database by private investors in border communities. = One person active in economic development organizations in Nogales, Arizona felt that the database could be useful for attracting potential investors to the area. The interviewee pointed out that businesses might able to use socioeconomic data to track the skills of residents of the town and surroun= ding area.

In Nogales, Sonora, poten= tial investors make up a large proportion of the approximately 4,000 daily visit= ors to the municipal website, and many of these corporate clients send question= s to the site’s manager about the region’s climate, workforce, and economy. A maquila manager noted that the infrastructure, demographic, and socioeconomic layers of the databases for both Douglas-Agua Prieta and Ambos Nogales would be useful to private companies and developers attempting to locate potential manufacturing sites and retail sales areas such as malls a= nd large stores. A municipal zoning official of Nogales, Sonora also noted that telephone companies, cable companies, housing developers, and business developers often contact the city’s planning department in search of infrastructure information, but that the municipality does not have the abi= lity to provide them with detailed spatial data. As a result, these companies ei= ther seek to purchase such information from private companies or (more commonly) they are left to conduct research to collect the information for themselves because it is not available anywhere else. This interviewee stressed that e= ven the availability of maps with detailed topographic information could save t= hese companies significant expenditures in time and money. Business leaders expressed interest in the potential for integrating their own data layers i= nto the database in a manner that would restrict access to those layers.

Students and E= ducators

The BARA team’s focus group and pilot pr= oject research suggested the efficacy of the database as a tool for students. For example, in one secondary school in Nogales, Sonora, the research team introduced students, teachers, and other community members to the website a= nd provided a basic orientation to the ArcIMS viewer. Teams working at each terminal sought information about the area surrounding their school and the colonias where they live. At another activity, University of Arizona studen= ts and faculty taught basic navigation with GPS receivers to Nogales, Sonora secondary school students in a park area in Arizona. Although the park was = too far north of the international border to be covered by the Colonias Monitor= ing Program database, the students nevertheless learned about potential uses of= GIS technology. During one activity, students tracked themselves across the landscape as shown in aerial photographs, using GIS software on handheld co= mputers. One group of students who participate in revegetation projects at their sch= ools was particularly fascinated by the technology. These students skipped lunch= and discovered features of the GPS systems that they had not been taught in the lesson, using a point-entry feature to mark spots of unusual vegetation on = the aerial photographs. At both activities, several teachers noted that the collection and display of such data could be useful additions to their classroom and extracurricular lessons.

The staff of public libraries in both Nogales = cities also expressed interest in the database. Librarians in the Nogales, Sonora public library were particularly enthusiastic. Students, adults, teachers a= nd even municipal officials come to the library looking for maps of the city, = but library employees expressed frustration because they do not have these resources. The website offers a potentially valuable resource to these educators, although difficulties printing from the data display platform may limit its utility. In fact, two weeks after one of the BARA researchers tra= ined two library staffers in use of the ESRI ArcIMS viewer, the researcher recei= ved a thank you note saying that they had used the GIS database with students. Clearly, there is significant interest and potential for the website in educational endeavors.

Academic Resea= rchers

A research team member observed a presentatio= n of the Colonias Monitoring Program database given on the University of Arizona campus, and attended by university faculty and students. Numerous audience members expressed interest in the database, and several asked if the site included specific information (such as archaeological sites, water table da= ta, and vegetative cover types) relevant to their disciplines. Several research= ers expressed that being able to add their own layers of spatial data to the database, or being able to download data for use in their own databases as georeferenced base layers, would greatly increase the usefulness of the application.

Non-Government= al Organizations

Several non-governmental organizations working in community development and environmental protection expressed interest in accessing the information on the GIS database for the= ir activities. One agency felt that the spatially represented demographic information would be helpful as background information in grant writing. A = few users observed that the website was a good resource for addressing environmental issues because the effective display of environmental patterns and interactions among features is possible with GIS technology and because many environmental issues such as air pollution and watershed management cr= oss international borders. Other interviewees working in community environmental projects saw the potential for adding layers to display parks and revegetat= ed areas in Ambos Nogales, as well as areas at high risk for soil erosion.

Others

Other users and potential u= sers mentioned during our interviews but not involved in this study include the Border Patrol, though they have their own GIS databases, and staff of prote= cted areas such as the Buenos Aires Wildlife Refuge. Finally, some people thought that even tourists would appreciate the site as it could potentially provide maps and would give them some idea of the general layout and environment of= the area. One official expressed that including reference point information (su= ch as the location of the U.S. Consulate in Nogales, Mexico) would benefit tourists, who often seek such information on the municipality’s websi= te.

Costs of Use

While the information on= the Colonias Monitoring Program Database is provided to users at no charge, the= re are costs associated with accessing this data from most locations. As expla= ined in Chapter Three, some users have access to the Internet through school or work, but many do not. Other potential users pay fees at internet caf&eacut= e;s or hourly rates for dial-up connections, and therefore the speed of the connections is an important consideration.= Table 3 shows the length of time necessary to perform various tasks using the GIS application from several locations.

&nb= sp;

Table 3. Time Required to Perfor= m Task using the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS

Task Performed=	Time Required (seconds)
	Nogales, Sonora Internet Café= ;	Tucson, Arizona Ethernet Connection=	Tucson, Arizona Dial-Up connection<= o:p>
bring up = home page for HUD GIS from another Internet page	10	2	8
bring up = Ambos Nogales front page	1	<1	1
“data” page for Ambos Nogal= es	4	2	5
launch Am= bos Nogales ARC IMS viewer	24	17	115
zoom in t= o see Nogales, Sonora	5	2	11
bring up = submenus on “layers” task pane	3	1	2
refresh m= ap with LANDSAT image overlay	13	9	23
bring up = help window	2	3	4
using inf= o selector tool, bring up “city limits, Nogales, Sonora” box on info. pa= ne at bottom	2	2	3
launch Do= uglas-Agua Prieta viewer	20	9	100
launch El Paso/Juarez viewer (note: ha= s LANDSAT image)	62	61	135
launch Ea= gle Pass / Piedras Negras viewer (note: ha= s LANDSAT image)	52	35	130
bring up hotmail.com (“control” for comparison in Tucson, since doesn’t go through an Arizona server)	6	5	15

Rates for public Internet access vary. Libraries on both sides of the border provide = free access, though the library in Nogales, Sonora has few computers with Intern= et capability (see Chapter 3). Internet cafés offer another option for those who don’t have connections at home, school, or work. In Nogales, Sonora, one hour of computer time at an Internet café costs approximately fifteen pesos (ten pesos is approximately $1 U.S.).

Information of Interest to Potential Users

In order to assess = how the database would specifically aid potential users, BARA researchers compiled a list of layers and data that interviewees identified as particularly useful. These included the spatial representation of urban and population growth and the spatial representation and tabular display of census data. Additionally, users mentioned the water and sewer mains were useful, but they said these would be more so if their diameters were shown as well.

Potential users were pleased that the ArcIMS format allowed them to access GIS data without GIS software. For people with only Internet access and a web browser, the ArcIMS viewer is a good medium of information delivery.

While most intervie= wees felt the database would be helpful, many had suggestions for additional lay= ers that would enhance their use of the database. The most commonly mentioned of these was the desire for a layer containing street names. Nearly every potential user we interviewed in Nogales, Sonora stressed the need for this information, as did many on the Arizona side of the border. While the map of the street layout was useful, users felt it would be more so if it included= the street names and if these names were clearly visible on the viewer map, not only as attribute data.

Many users identifi= ed information needs related to water issues. In addition to the aforementioned diameter of water mains, a particularly useful addition for fire departments and planne= rs, interviewees wanted water sources such as wells marked and labeled, layers displaying water table data, increased coverage of streams (some of the existing coverage is sparse), and a layer of storm drainage patterns.

Some users felt tha= t the topographic data on the website was insufficient, particularly for a place = like Nogales where slope and terrain are important for planning and development.= The existing topographic lines are numbered at inconsistent intervals and could= be better understood if markers such as hilltops or numbered elevations were included. Users felt digital elevation would be the best method for display= ing topography. In addition, several users wanted more information about vegetation, and they argued that more data outside the urban areas were necessary. Some wanted to see land use categories as well. Several users po= inted out that the aerial photographs were out of date and should be updated regularly, given the rapid growth of border cities.

Interviewees also p= ointed out that landmarks such as schools, parks and churches could more clearly labeled on the maps, to augment the labels only appearing through the information tool. They would like information on traffic patterns, on emerg= ency management, on relative economic conditions within colonias, telecommunications, and property boundaries.

Changes to Increase Utility

In addition to disc= ussing data that potential users would like to see included in the database, commu= nity members expressed concern about organizational and functional issues. As described earlier, the process through which this research was conducted wa= s an interactive one. As community members reported concerns or problems to BARA researchers, the website designer addressed many of these issues. This responsiveness to community input was critical in encouraging continued community participation and in the creation of a database that community members could actually utilize. Several of the concerns raised are relative= ly simple to address and have been attended to in the Nogales database and website. However, some bring out more difficult issues related to the data platform and delivery of information. Both categories will be discussed in = this section in hopes of informing further development of the Colonias Monitoring Program.

Easily Addressed Concerns

The concern expressed most frequently by interviewees was that the website was not in Spanish. When we began our interviewing, there was only an English version of all the text a= nd labels available. If the intended audiences of the border mapping projects = are border communities, then the websites must be bilingual. Since both the Amb= os Nogales and Douglas-Agua Prieta websites have been translated, the response from community members has been very positive.

The second relatively simple-to-address issue that was raised by potential users was that they ha= d no idea how to use the GIS application. The addition of a simple set of instructions for using the database to create maps, clearly accessible on t= he map view page, has helped with this issue. Even so, for users with little o= r no exposure to GIS technology, the process is still quite challenging, and at least a minimal level of training is necessary.

A final concern in this cat= egory relates to the use of terminology and the presentation of data in the datab= ase. While such errors can be serious, they are often relatively easy to fix. For example, in one focus group, participants were offended by the use of the phrase “barrios pobres” to designate colonias in Nogales, Sonor= a. One woman remarked, “I didn’t have any idea that I was poor!= 221; The same people were also concerned that some of the colonia boundaries were not accurately presented, and they were able to provide the information necessary for fixing them. When these concerns were brought to the database manager, they were quickly fixed; the community participation process ensur= ed that the problems were addressed before the database was made publicly available.

= ;

Concerns that Pose Greater Challenges

Many of the areas of concern raised by prospective users are more difficult to address. One of t= he most important of these is the issue of printing. It is extremely difficult= to print maps created with the ArcIMS application. When the maps do print, they are small and difficult to read. If a goal is for communities to use this database to apply for funding, they must be able to print the maps for their funding applications and project proposals. This is a problem that needs to= be resolved for existing and future sites.

A second area of co= ncern regards the logistics of accessing and utilizing the GIS database. For exam= ple, many interviewees expressed the desire to use their own data in the GIS application, hoping to layer their personal data with that in the database while keeping their data private. Others wanted to download the data from t= he Colonias Monitoring Program database and use it in their own applications. = This last option is possible with ArcIMS using the file transfer protocol (.ftp) format, but it is difficult. At this point, it is not possible for users to work with their personal data on the application and keep it concealed from other users. The only mechanism for Arizona-Sonora users to integrate their= own data into the database is by sending it to the Tucson offices where the databases are managed (see Chapter One). While database managers can establ= ish protection devices that limit general access to specific data layers, this was not perceived by interviewees as being equivalent to having control over the da= ta from their own offices.

Some potential user= s were concerned that the interface of the GIS database was too overwhelming and confusing. They recommended simplifying and clarifying this page. One suggestion was to create “bundles” of la= yers which could be turned on and off simultaneously for specific types of searc= hes. For example, a “transportation” button could display layers for roads, railroads, bus routes, airports, etc, while a “hydrology” button could display water bodies, wells, water and sewer lines, treatment facilities, etc. Others felt that some items were not labeled in a way that explained what they were and where the information was collected. While this information is available in the metadata, it might be useful to include bri= ef descriptions on the maps. Users felt the information tool was not useful, a= nd some suggested a pop-up window would provide more information.

A very critical iss= ue for potential users is the quality and currency of available data. Lack of understanding of GIS led some interviewees to express delight that the GIS database would provide more accurate or more up-to-date data than are curre= ntly available via government agencies (e.g. INEGI or the U.S. Census). Many of = the uses which users envisioned for the GIS database (such as tracking growth r= ates and signaling infrastructure needs), require data that are more current than provided by decennial censuses, especially in rapidly growing areas such as U.S.-Mexico border communities. That the GIS merely displays existing data = in a spatial format was not fully understood by all interviewees. Without data-gathering efforts, the functionality of the GIS database for these purposes will be very limited.

This raises another difficult problem facing the Colonias Monitoring Program: the logistics of future storage, access, and maintenance of the databases. As the databases = transition from being works-in-progress to tools for community development, designers = and administrators will want to consider these issues carefully. For example, w= ho will be charged with storage of the existing database? Will data be updated, and, if so, how often and by whom? What kind of quality control will exist regarding the accuracy of the data? One option in the Nogales website is handing over the operation and maintenance of the database to Santa Cruz Co= unty officials who are developing their own database. However, while Santa Cruz County has the capacity for such an arrangement, this suggestion raises the additional concern of access. Santa Cruz County hopes to charge variable ra= tes for access to its GIS information and system, so integrating the county database with the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS site, designed as a free = tool for border development, is problematic. Could the county be compensated for maintaining a free database? What are the problems with potentially limiting access to the Colonias Monitoring Program data by charging for it? While expanding the Colonias Monitoring Program to new locations will undoubtedly= be useful, some resources are needed for securing the future of existing proje= cts as well.

Finally, some people mentioned that it is difficult to overlay some types of data, such as aerial photography and census data. We did notice that the decision to keep LANDSAT images or aerial photographs from appearing on the default page was extreme= ly helpful given the potentially slow internet connections of many users. The Douglas-Agua Prieta site and the Ambos Nogales site loaded two to three tim= es more quickly than the Texas border sites because these images were not the default layers.

Chapter Five=

Summary and Conclusions=

Recent years have b= rought rapid changes in information technology, and U.S.-Mexico border communities reflect the as-yet uneven access to and knowledge of computers, the Interne= t, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Local leaders and residents of Am= bos Nogales and Douglas-Aqua Prieta commented on how rapidly things have change= d in their communities; where a few years ago Internet access was available to o= nly a few, by 2004 several Internet providers were offering service and househo= lds that had computers were also likely to have Internet access. As an indicati= on of changing use of the technology and expectations within the community, schools on both sides of the border expected students to have regular Inter= net access for doing research, submitting assignments, and communicating with teachers and peers. At the same time, many residents lack the hardware, software, and/or knowledge necessary for using an Internet-based GIS tool. = The conditions reported in this document are dynamic and likely to change. Nevertheless, many of our observations concern the format and scope of the Colonias Monitoring Program GIS databases and will remain relevant for the continued development of the pilot sites and for future border GIS projects= .

To begin, the metho= dology we have pursued is effective in increasing the utility and accessibility of= the database and the website. Ongoing interaction between community members and database designers is critical in creating and maintaining the community pa= rtnerships necessary for constructing a useful web-based community planning tool. This interactive process has improved both the database and the relationship bet= ween the community and federal partners. We established a relationship with the community where people were encouraged to speak openly, and the quick respo= nses to participants’ suggestions demonstrated that their input was valued= . In addition, creating informal settings such as workshops and pilot projects provided places that were not perceived to be intimidating at which potenti= al users could provide feedback. Building on the success of this methodology, = we offer the following suggestions for how future community partnerships can be achieved and maintained.

First, all aspects of the w= ebsite must be bilingual. Any attempts to target border communities in either Mexi= co or the United States must be accessible to all members of those communities, and this requires background information, instructions, GIS layers, and training in Spanish as well as English. The community response to the Nogal= es website was improved dramatically by the translation of the website’s text.

Second, formal presentation= s of the program to community leaders on both sides of the border are necessary for building bridges among federal, state, and local actors. While open communi= ty meetings are helpful, it is also important to directly address community political or social leaders in a forum such as a town council meeting. This should occur both before research or database construction begins and once = it is completed in order to present the final product. This formality not only conveys respect for community leaders and existing institutional structures, but it provides a vehicle for publicizing the database. The more exposure t= he website and GIS applications are given in a community, the more likely they are to = be used by community members. Further, since many community members are unfami= liar with GIS, a thoughtful and understandable presentation of the capabilities = and potential applications of the website could introduce some basic awareness = of the technology.

Third, it will be important= to continue to integrate Colonias Monitoring Program GIS database development = with the efforts of other federal, state or county agencies and to inform the pu= blic that this is happening. Several community members mentioned the potential f= or overlap between this program and projects taking place in their communities. For example, as outlined above, the U.S. Border Patrol and Santa Cruz County were both mentioned by community members as entities developing GIS databas= es of the Nogales area, and the city of Nogales, Sonora has a data-rich websit= e. Support for continuing to build on existing information and efforts is need= ed.

The HUD-USGS Colonias Monit= oring Program has been designed to help U.S.-Mexico border communities reach their goals of improving housing and infrastructure and enhancing the quality of = life for all their residents. As demonstrated in this user participation project, community leaders from the government, business, academic, and NGO sectors embrace the notion of community development and are engaged in numerous activities to achieve it. With continued input from local leaders and residents, the Colonias Monitoring Program can become an important tool in their efforts.

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